This invention relates to a computerized interactive system of language analysis, and more particularly to a system for the connotative analysis of discourse.
Language is an abstract, rule-governed system of arbitrary symbols that can be combined in countless ways to communicate information. All languages include a system of phonology (i.e., set of sounds), semantics (i.e., word, phrase and sentence meanings), morphology (i.e., rules for combining smallest meaningful units to form or alter words), syntax (i.e., ways in which words are organized into phrases and sentences) and pragmatics (i.e., rules governing a conversation and social use of language).
The use of language enables humankind to develop advanced cognitive abilities. Cognitive development relates to the changes in a person's memory, thinking, use of language and other mental skills as they develop from infants to adults. Humans develop a certain degree of cognitive competence. In addition to such cognitive competence, humans also display and experience feelings, emotions and moods. In particular, our emotional state or the emotional state we desire to elicit can influence our choice of words. Every human language enables people to communicate both intellectually and emotionally because words and phrases convey both cognitive and affective meaning. `Affective` means to be influenced by or result from emotions.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Semantics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of the relationship between words or phrases and their meanings. Of particular significance here are the contrasting linguistic terms, denotation and connotation. `Denotation` is a particular meaning of a symbol. `Connotation` is an idea or meaning suggested by or associated with a word or phrase. Thus, `denote` describes the relation between a word or phrase and the thing it conventionally names, whereas `connote` describes the relation between the word or phrase and the images or associations it evokes. As used herein a denotation is an objective, cognitive meaning which refers to the direct relationship between a term and the object, idea or action it designates. As used herein, a connotation is a subjective, affective meaning which refers to the emotive and associative aspect of a term.
The denotative meanings of words have been systematically codified into definitions and collected together to form dictionaries, thesauruses and related denotative language references. However, the codification of connotative meanings has not been achieved. Consider, for example, a dictionary which provides the following denotative meaning for the word `pub`: "a building providing alcoholic drinks for consumption on the premises" (Oxford Dictionary). However, the word `pub` simultaneously conveys a host of emotional connotations, such as merriment, pleasure, cheerfulness, perhaps some sadness, and so on. Similarly, words such as `summer`, `love`, and `melody` have a variety of positive emotional connotative associations for most people, while words such as `cancer`, `rape`, and `homeless` have negative emotional connotations for most people. In all cases, the associated connotations are not systematically accessible using any known language reference resource or tool.
The reason for the absence of codification of connotative meaning is that, while words readily evoke emotional connotations, the converse is not true: emotional connotations are not easily codified using words. Unlike denotative meaning, affective meaning does not naturally lend itself to systematic word-symbol description. Emotions are felt, not thought, so the relationship between a word and its associated connotative content, while real, is not codifiable using the relatively straightforward methods employed by lexicographers in fashioning denotative definitions. Accordingly, there is a need for a connotation language reference tool and a system for codifying the connotative content of such a tool.
Not only is it desirable to identify connotative meaning, it also is desirable to quantify the intensity associated with a connotation. Some words or phrases evoke stronger responses than others. Some words or phrases are more activity oriented. In the 1950s, Charles Osgood, an American psychologist developed a method of constructing bipolar scales based on semantic opposites, such as "good-bad", "soft-hard", "fast-slow," "clean-dirty," "valuable-worthless," "fair-unfair," and so on. Osgood called these scales "semantic differential" scales because they differentiated attitudinal intensity based on a person's subjective understanding of the connotative meanings of words. Osgood et al. explored large amounts of data provided by students who evaluated numerous words and phrases on numerous semantic differential scales. The outcome of Osgood's investigations was a description of the existence of "Semantic space," three measurable underlying attitudinal dimensions that proved in subsequent research to be robustly identifiable across other languages and cultures. Osgood named these dimensions Evaluation, Power, and Activity (EPA). Experimentation by many investigators around the world confirmed the reality of semantic space and its cross-cultural validity (Japan, Scandinavia, Germany, Ireland etc.).
The semantic differential is a method for measuring the meaning of an object to an individual. It may also be thought of as a series of attitude scales. A subject is asked to rate a given concept (for example, `Irish`, `Republican`, `wife`, `me as I am`) on a series of seven-point bipolar rating scales. Any concept--whether it is a political issue, a person, an institution, a work of art--can be rated. Subgroups of the scales can be summed up to yield scores that are interpreted as indicating the individual's position on three underlying dimensions of attitude toward the object being rated. These dimensions have been identified by using factor-analytic procedures in examining the responses of many individuals concerning many concepts or objects. It has been found that three subgroups measure the following three dimensions of attitude: (1) the individual's evaluation of the object or concept being rated, corresponding to the favorable-unfavorable dimension in more traditional attitude scales; (2) the individual's perception of the potency or power of the object or concept; and (3) the individual's perception of the activity of the object or concept. (See Kidder, L. H., "Research Methods in Social Relations;" 1981).
The problem with the semantic differential technique is that it does not distinguish beyond a single evaluative continuum, with positive attitude at one end of the scale through negative attitude at the other end. That is, it does not actually identify any individual emotions. Moreover, although several short "semantic differential dictionaries" have been developed (known in the literature as semantic "atlases" because they are analogous to "maps" of semantic space), consisting of 500 to 1,500 words with EPA scores for each word, the technique of semantic differential is not associated with any system or method for codifying the words of any given language, even on a single affective variable. According there is a need for a system for codifying the connotative meaning of words.
Computerized systems for analyzing language include various language parsing systems and grammar checkers. Such systems relate more to the mechanical analysis of discourse rather than to the content and quality of discourse.
In general written discourse varies widely in emotional and imaginative content, where works more imaginative tend to rely more on connotative content to impact the intended audience of the discourse. Pure non-fiction, which is primarily informational in content is at one end of a continuum ranging from non-imaginative to imaginative discourse. Such pure non-fiction works are mainly comprised of words having comparatively little emotionally-associated connotative content. These documents tend to be objective, impersonal, and occupation-specific, such as academic and scientific research papers; business textbooks; administrative documents; and technical manuals.
At the other end of the continuum is literary art. Such works contain many words and idioms that are charged with emotional and human-interest connotations. These works tend to be subjective, personal, leisure-oriented, and appealing to the imagination. They include novels, short stories, plays, movie and TV scripts, poetry, and song lyrics.
In the middle are many varieties of non-fiction that employ imaginative elements. Their authors try to present information while using vocabulary with sufficient connotative content to hold the interest and attention of readers. This type of writing includes: magazine and newspaper journalism; public relations and advertising messages; travel writing; self-help; scripted speeches; and religious writing such as sermons.
Although there are many fields of writing where connotative content is important to the quality of the work, there have not been tools for evaluating the connotative content of discourse. In particular, there has not been any system which analyzes the emotional meaning and impact of written discourse. Accordingly, there is a need for a system for connotative analysis of discourse.